Пруст и кальмар. Нейробиология чтения Вулф Марианна
20. K. Rayner et al. (2001). How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading; J. Torgesen, R. Wagner, and C. Rashotte (1994). Longitudinal Studies of Phonological Processing and Reading // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27 (10). P. 276–286.
21. C. Juel (2005). The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading // Handbook of Early Literacy Research. D. Dickinson and S. Neuman (eds.). New York: Guilford. Vol. 2. P. 410–426.
22. G. Cureton (1973). Action-Reading. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
23. P. E. Bryant, M. MacLean, and L. Bradley (1990). Rhyme, Language, and Children’s reading // Applied Psycholinguistics, 11 (3). P. 237–252.
24. Ehri. Grapheme-Phoneme Knowledge Is Essential for Learning to Read Words in English.
25. Психолог Дэвид Шэа из Университета Хайфы много писал о том, что самообучение как часть чтения вслух ускоряет овладение чтением по целому ряду причин. Посредством чтения вслух маленькие дети быстро и хорошо начинают формировать высококачественные репрезентации слов, что способствует тому, что количество слов, переходящих из книг в их запас знакомых слов, постоянно растет. В последние годы интенсивно изучается процесс, посредством которого дети переходят от визуального чтения на ранних этапах (когда они, по сути, запоминают визуальную форму слова, например STOP – СТОП) к тому времени, когда начинают формироваться связи между буквами и вариантами их произношения. Линнеа Эри выделяет несколько фаз этого процесса. Во время добуквенной фазы читатели опознают слова, используя визуальные подсказки (Ута Фрит называет ее логографической фазой). Во время этой фазы, согласно концепции Эри, дети учатся устанавливать «частичные связи» между буквами слова и их произношением. Укрепление этих частичных связей – очень важная задача для читателя-новичка. См.: D. Share (1995). Phonological Recording and Self-Teaching: Sine Qua Non of Reading Acquisition // Cognition 55 (2). P. 151–218; D. Share (1999). Phonological Recording and Orthographic Learning: A Direct Test of the Self-Teaching Hypothesis // Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72 (2). P. 95–129.
26. M. Clay (1975). What Did I Write? Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann; M. Clay (1991a). Becoming Literate: The Construction of Inner Control. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann; M. Clay (1991b). Introducing a New Storybook to Young Readers // Reading Teacher, 45. P. 264–273; M. Clay (1993). Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.
27. G. Pinnell and I. Fountas (1998). Word Matters. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann; I. C. Fountas and G. Pinnell (1996). Guided Reading. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.
28. A. Biemiller (1970). The Development of the Use of Graphic and Contextual Information as Children Learn to Read // Reading Research Quarterly, 6. P. 75–96.
29. D. McGuiness (1997). Why Our Children Can’t Read and What We Can Do about It. New York: Simon and Schuster.
30. V. Berninger (1994). Reading and Writing Acquisition. Madison, Wis.: Brown and Benchmark.
31. L. C. Moats (2000). Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers. Baltimore, Md.: Brookes.
32. Juel. The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading.
33. G. P. Ouellette (2006). What’s Meaning Got to Do with It? The Role of Vocabulary in Word Reading and Reading Comprehension // Journal of Educational Psychology, 98 (3). P. 554–566.
34. M. Wolf and R. Kennedy (2003). How the Origins of Written Language Instruct Us to Teach: A Response to Steven Strauss // Educational Researcher, 32. P. 26–30.
35. W. E. Nagy and R. C. Anderson (1984). How Many Words Are There in Printed School English? // Reading Research Quarterly, 19 (3). P. 304–330.
36. В первый школьный день первоклассники с более высоким социально-экономическим статусом уже знают в два-четыре раза больше слов, чем дети с низким социально-экономическим уровнем. См.: L. C. Moats (2001). Overcoming the Language Gap // American Educator, 25 (5). P. 8–9.
37. R. Graves and W. Slater (1987). Development of Reading Vocabularies in Rural Disadvantaged Students, Intercity Disadvantaged Students, and Middle Class Suburban Students. Доклад, представленный на ежегодном собрании Американской ассоциации исследований в области образования, Нью-Йорк; E. J. Kame’enui, R. C. Dixon, and D. W. Carnine (1987). Issues in the Design of Vocabulary Instruction // The Nature of Vocabulary Acquisition. M. G. McKeown, and M. E. Curtis (eds.). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. P. 129–145.
38. Рисунок 5.1, неизбежно очень условный, иллюстрирует компиляцию результатов разных исследований, особенно работ по связанным с возрастом различиям в читающем мозге. Более специфическое описание см. в следующих публикациях: V. Berninger and T. L. Richards (2002). Brain Literacy for Educators and Psychologists. San Diego, Calif.: Academic; J. R. Booth, D. D. Burman, J. R. Meyer, Z. Lei, B. L. Trommer, N. D. Davenport (2003). Neural Development of Selective Attention and Response Inhibition. NeuroImage, 20. P. 737–751; E. D. Palmer, T. T. Brown, S. E. Petersen, and B. L. Schlaggar (2004). Investigation of the Functional Neuroanatomy of Single Word Reading and Its Development // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (3). P. 203–223; K. R. Pugh, W. E. Mencl, A. R. Jenner, L. Katz, S. J. Frost, J. R. Lee (2001). Neurobiological Studies of Reading and Reading Disability // Journal of Communication Disorders, 34. P. 479–492; K. R. Pugh, B. A. Shaywitz, S. E. Shaywitz, R. T. Constable, P. Skudlarski, and R. K. Fulbright (1996). Cerebral Organization of Component Processes in Reading // Brain, 119. P. 1221–1238; R. Sandak, W. E. Mencl, S. J. Frost, and K. R. Pugh (2004). The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (3). P. 273–292; B. L. Schlaggar, T. T. Brown, H. M. Lugar, K. M. Visscher, F. M. Meizin, and S. E. Petersen (2002). Functional Neuroanatomical Differences between Adults and School-Age Children in the Processing of Single Words // Science, 296. P. 1476–1479; B. L. Schlaggar, H. M. Lugar, T. T. Brown, R. S. Coalson, and S. E. Petersen (2003). fMRI Reveals Age-Related Differences in the Development of Single Word Reading // Society for Neuroscience Abstracts; B. A. Shaywitz, S. E. Shaywitz, K. R. Pugh, W. E. Mencl, R. K. Fulbright, P. Sjudlarski (2002). Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia // Biological Psychiatry, 52. P. 101–110; P. Simos, J. Breier, J. Fletcher, B. Foorman, A. Mouzaki, and A. Papanicolaou (2001). Age-Related Change in Regional Brain Activation during Phonological Decoding and Printed Word Recognition // Developmental Neuropsychology, 19 (2). P. 191–210; P. E. Turkeltaub, L. Gareau, D. L. Flowers, T. A. Zeffiro, and G. F. Eden (2003). Developmental of Neural Mechanisms for Reading // Nature Neuroscience, 6. P. 767–773.
39. J. A. Church, S. E. Petersen, and B. L. Schlagger (2006). Regions Showing Developmental Effects in Reading Studies Show Length and Lexicality Effects in Adults. Представлено Обществу нейробиологии.
40. Palmer et al. Investigation of the Functional Neuranatomy of Single Word Reading and Its Development.
41. R. B. Ivry, T. C. Justus, and C. Middleton (2001). The Cerebellum, Timing, and Language: Implications for the Study of Dyslexia // Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain. M. Wolf (ed.). Timonium, Md.: York. P. 189–211; R. B. Scott, C. J. Stoodley, P. Anslow, C. Paul, J. F. Stein, E. M. Sugden, and C. D. Mitchell (2001). Lateralized Cognitive Deficits in Children Following Cerebellar Lesions // Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43. P. 685–691.
42. Nagy and Anderson. How Many Words Are There in Printed School English?
43. K. Stanovich (1986). Matthew Effects in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy // Reading Research Quarterly, 21 (4). P. 360–407.
44. Kame’enui et al. Issues in the Design of Vocabulary Instruction.
45. Moats. Overcoming the Language Gap.
46. I. Beck, M. McKeown, and L. Kucan (2002). Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction. New York: Guildford.
47. Carlisle and Stone. Exploring the Role of Morphemes in Word Reading.
48. M. Henry (2003). Unlocking Literacy: Effective Decoding and Spelling Instruction. Baltimore, Md.: Brookes.
49. V. Mann and M. Singson (2003). Linking Morphological Knowledge to English Decoding Ability: Large Effects of Little Suffixes // Reading Complex Words: Cross-Language Studies // E. M. H. Assink and D. Sandra (eds.). New York: Kluwer. P. 1–25; E. D. Reichle and C. A. Perfetti (2003). Morphology in Word Identification: A Word Experience Model That Accounts for Morpheme Frequency Effects // Scientific Studies of Reading, 7. P. 219–237.
50. G. Greene (1969). The Lost Childhood and Other Essays. New York: Viking. P. 13.
51. M. Wolf and T. Katzir-Cohen (2001). Reading Fluency and Its Intervention // Scientific Studies of Reading, 5. P. 211–238. (Special Issue.) Вместе с моей бывшей студенткой, а теперь коллегой в Университете Хайфы, Тами Кацир, я предложила новое определение беглости, которое может служить в своем роде конспектом происходящих изменений на ранних этапах чтения. Вначале беглость чтения – продукт первоначального развития точности и последующего развития автоматизма в базовых сублексических и лексических процессах и их интеграции в чтение отдельного слова и связного текста. В числе этих процессов – перцептивные, фонологические, орфографические и морфологические на уровне буквы, буквосочетания и слова, а также семантические и синтаксические на уровне слова и уровне связного текста. После того как эти функции развились полностью, понятие беглости чтения уже относится к уровню точности и скорости, при которых декодирование относительно незатрудненное, устное чтение – гладкое и точное, с правильной просодией, а внимание может быть направлено на понимание.
52. M. Meyer and R. Felton (1999). Repeated Reading to Enhance Fluency: Old Approaches and New Directions // Annals of Dyslexia, 49. P. 83–306; R. Allington (1982). Fluency: The Neglected Reading Goal // Reading Teacher, 36(6). P. 556–561.
53. L. Cutting and H. Scarborough (2005). Prediction of Reading Comprehension: Relative Contribution of Word Recognition, Language Proficiency, and Other Cognitive Skills Can Depend on How Comprehension Is Measured // Scientific Studies of Reading, 10 (3). P. 277–299.
54. A. Baddeley (1986). Working Memory, Oxford: Clarendon.
55. Обратите внимание, что в некоторых случаях мы добрались до осознания этой взаимосвязи благодаря изучению детей с затруднениями понимания. См., например, следующие исследования: K. Nation and M. Snowling (1998). Semantic processing and the development of word recognition skills: Evidence from children with reading comprehension difficulties // Journal of Memory and Language, 39. P. 85–101; J. Oakhill and N. Yuill (1996). Higher Order Factors in Comprehension Disability: Processes and Remediation // Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Processes and Intervention. C. Cornaldi and J. Oakhill (eds.). Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum; D. Shankweiler and S. Crain (1986). Language Mechanisms and Reading Disorder: A Modular Approach // Cognition, 24 (1–2). P. 139–168; L. Swanson and J. Alexander (1997). Cognitive Processes as Predictors of Word Recognition and Reading Comprehension in Learning-disabled and Skilled Readers: Revisiting the Specificity Hypothesis // Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (1). P. 128–158.
56. J. Bruner (1973). Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.
57. M. Lovett, S. Borden, T. DeLuca, L. Lacerenza, N. Benson, and D. Brackstone (1994). Treating the Core Deficits of Developmental Dyslexia: Evidence of Transfer-of-Learning Following Phonologically-and-Strategy-Based Reading Training Programs // Developmental Psychology, 30 (6). P. 805–822; M. Lovett (2000). Remediating the Core Deficits of Developmental Reading Disability: A Double-Deficit Perspective // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33 (4). P. 334–358.
58. E. Bowen (1950). Out of a Book // Collected Impressions. New York: Knopf. P. 267.
6. Бесконечная история развития чтения
1. E. Bowen (1950). Out of a Book // Collected Impressions. New York: Knopf. P. 267.
2. T. Deeney, M. Wolf, and A. O’Rourke (1999). I Like To Take My Own Sweet Time: Case Study of a Child with Naming-Speed Deficits and Reading Disabilities // Journal of Special Education, 35 (3). P. 145–155.
3. Ibid.
4. P. McCardle (2001). Emergent and Early Literacy: Current Status and Research Directions // Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16 (4). (Special Issue.)
5. National Center for Education Statistics, NCES. The Nation’s Report Card: National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Education (разные годы); National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NICHD (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Reports of the Subgroups. (NIH Publication No.00–4754.) Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office.
6. L. S. Schwartz (1992). The Confessions of a Reader // Reading in Bed. S. Gilbar, Jaffrey. N.H.: Godine. P. 61.
7. E. Winner (1988). The Point of Words: Children’s Understanding of Metaphor and Irony. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
8. M. Twain (1965). The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New York: Harper and Row. P. 81–82.
9. R. Vacca (2002). From Efficient Decoders to Strategic Readers // Reading and Writing in the Content Area, 60 (3). P. 6–11.
10. M. Pressley (2002). Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching. New York: Guilford.
11. См. рекомендации: A. S. Palincsar and A. L. Brown (1984). Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension-Fostering and Comprehension-Monitoring Activities // Cognition and Instruction 1. P. 117–175; A. S. Palincsar and L. R. Herrenkohl (2002). Designing Collaborative Learning Contexts // Theory into Practice, 41 (1). P. 26–32; National Reading Council (2003). Strategic Education Research Partnership. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
12. C. R. Zafon (2001). The Shadow of the Wind, trans. Lucia Graves. New York: Penguin. P. 5–6.
13. D. Rose (2008). Learning in a Digital Age // Building Usable Knowledge in Mind, Brain, and Education. K. Fischer and T. Katzir (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. R. Sandak et al. (2004). The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (3). P. 273–292; B. A. Shaywitz et al. (2002). Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia // Biological Psychiatry, 52. P. 101–110; P. E. Turkeltaub, L. Gareau, D. L. Flowers, T. A. Zettiro, and G. F. Eden (2003). Development of Neural Mechanisms for reading // Nature Neuroscience, 6. P. 767–773.
15. E. B. Huey (1908). The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. P. 6.
16. M. I. Posner and B. D. McCandliss (1999). Brain Circuitry during Reading // Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia. R. M. Klein and P. A. McMullen (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. P. 305–337 (особенно см.: P. 316); M. I. Posner and A. Pavese (1998). Anatomy of Word and Sentence Meaning // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95. P. 899–905.
17. M. Posner and M. Raichle (1994). Images of Mind. New York: Scientific American Library. Доступное описание когнитивной и нейроанатомической основы чтения см.: V. Berninger and T. Richards (2002). Brain Literacy for Educators and Psychologists. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. См. также раннюю работу: V. Berninger (1994). Reading and Writing Acquisition. Madison, Wisc.: Brown & Benchmark.
18. A. Baddeley (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press; P. A. Carpenter, M. A. Just, and E. D. Reichle (2000). Working Memory and Executive Function: Evidence from Neuroimaging // Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 102. P. 195–199; G. R. Lyon and N. A. Krasnegor (eds.) (1996). Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Baltimore, Md.: Brookes; D. L. Schacter (1993). Understanding Implicit Memory: A Cognitive Neuroscience Approach // A. F. Collins, S. E. Gathercole, M. A. Conway, and P. E. Morris (eds.). Theories of Memory. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum; D. Schacter (1996). Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. New York: Basic Books; D. Schacter (2001). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin.
19. E. Tulving (1986). Episodic and Semantic Memory: Where Should We Go from Here? // Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9 (3). P. 573–577.
20. L. R. Squire (1994). Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory // Memory Systems. D. L. Schacter and E. Tulving (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. P. 203–231.
21. Baddeley. Working Memory.
22. T. H. Carr (1999). Trying to Understand Reading and Dyslexia: Mental Chronometry, Individual Differences, Cognitive Neuroscience, and the Impact of Instruction as Converging Sources of Evidence // Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia. R. M. Klein and P. A. McMullen (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. P. 459–491.
23. D. Hebb (1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley.
24. K. Rayner (1999). What Have We Learned about Eye Movements during Reading? // Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia. R. Klein and P. A. McMullen (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
25. Ibid.
26. Posner and McCandliss. Brain Circuitry during Reading.
27. B. McCandliss, L. Cohen, and S. Dehaene (2003). The Visual Word Form Area: Expertise for Reading in the Fusiform Gyrus // Trends in Cognitive Science, 7. P. 293–299.
28. Carr. Trying to Understand Reading and Dyslexia.
29. K. Pammer, P. Hansen, M. I. Kringelbach, I. Holliday, G. Barnes, A. Hillebrand, K. D. Singh, and P. I. Cornelissen (2004). Visual Word Recognition: The First Half Second // Neuroimage, 22. P. 1819–1825.
30. J. Morais et al. (1979). Does Awareness of Speech as a Sequence of Phones Arise Spontaneously? // Cognition, 7. P. 323–331.
31. K. M. Peterson, A. Reis, and M. Ingvar (2001). Cognitive Processing in Literte and Illiterate Subjects: A Review of Some Recent Behavioral and Functional Neuroimaging Data // Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42 (3). P. 251–267.
32. Существует значительно больше нейровизуализационных исследований фонологических процессов, чем любых других процессов. Обзоры существующих научных работ и различных взглядов на влияние факторов и языковых систем на эту активацию см. в следующих публикациях: Z. Breznitz (2006). Fluency in Reading. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum; M. Coltheart, B. Curtis, P. Atkins, and M. Haller (1993). Models of Reading Aloud: Dual Route and Parallel-Distributed Processing Approach // Psychological Review, 100 (4). P. 589–608; J. A. Fiez, D. A. Balota, M. E. Raichle, and S. E. Petersen (1999). Effects of Lexicality, Frequency, and Spelling-to-Sound Consistency on the Functional Anatomy of Reading // Neuron, 24. P. 205–218; C. A. Perfetti and D. J. Bolger (2004). The Brain Might Read That Way // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8(4). P. 293–304; Sandak et al. The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions; K. R. Pugh et al. (1997). Predicting Reading Performance from Neuroimaging Profiles: The Cerebral Basis of Phonological Effects in Printed Word Identification // Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2. P. 1–20; L. H. Tan et al. (2005). Reading Depends on Writing, in Chinese // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102 (24). P. 8781–8785; R. A. Poldrack, A. D. Wagner, M. W. Prull, J. E. Desmond, G. H. Glover, and J. D. Gabrieli (1999). Functional Specialization for Semantic and Phonological Processing in the Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex // NeuroImage, 10. P. 15–35.
33. H. Wimmer and U. Goswami (1994). The Influence of Orthographic Consistency on Reading Development: Word Recognition in English and German Children // Cognition, 51 (1). P. 91–103.
34. E. Paulesu, J. F. Demonet, F. Fazio, F. McCrory, V. Chanoine, N. Brunswick (2001). Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity // Science, 291. P. 2165–2167; E. Paulesu, E. McCrory, F. Fazio, L. Menoncello, N. Brunswick, S. F. Cappa, M. Cotelli, G. Cossu, F. Corte, M. Lorusso, S. Pesenti, A. Gallagher, D. Perani, C. Price, C. Frith, and U. Frith (2000). A Cultural Effect on Brain Function // Nature Neuroscience, 3. P. 91–96.
35. Tan et al. Reading depends on Writing, in Chinese; M. S. Kobayashi, C. W. Hayes. P. Macaruso. P. E. Hook, and J. Kato (2005). Effects of Mora Deletion, Nonword Repetition, Rapid Naming, and Visual Search Performance on Beginning Reading in Japanese // Annals of Dyslexia, 55 (1). P. 105–125.
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38. A. Fadiman (1998). Confessions of a Common Reader. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
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41. L. Osterhout and P. Holcomb (1992). Event-Related Brain Potentials Elicited by Syntactic Anomalies // Journal of Memory and Language, 31. P. 285–806.
42. См. обсуждение взаимосвязи между синтаксическими и семантическими процессами: R. Jackendoff (2002). Foundations of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
43. Этот рисунок, как и временная шкала, создан на основе множества работ различных исследовательских лабораторий, см., например: J. B. Demb, R. A. Poldrack, and J. D. Gabrieli (1999). Functional Neuroimaging of Word Processing in Normal and Dyslexic Readers // Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia. R. M. Klein and P. A. McMullen (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; P. G. Simos, J. M. Fletcher, B. R. Foorman, D. J. Francis, E. M. Castillo, R. N. Davis, M. Fitzgerald, P. G. Mathes, C. Denton, and A. C. Papanicolaou (2002). Brain Activation Profiles During the Early States of Reading Acquisition // Journal of Child Neurology 17 (3). P. 159–163; E. D. Palmer, T. T. Brown, S. E. Petersen, and B. L. Schlaggar (2004). Investigation of the Functional Neuroanatomy of Single Word Reading and Its Development // Scientific Studies of Reading 8 (3). P. 203–223; P. Simos, J. Breier, J. Fletcher, B. Foorman, A. Mouzaki, and A. Papanicolaou (2001). Age-Related Change in Regional Brain Activation during Phonological Decoding and Printed Word Recognition // Developmental Neuropsychology 19 (2). P. 191–210; K. Pammer, P. C. Hansen, M. L. Kringelbach, I. Holliday, G. Barnes, A. Hillebrand, K. D. Singh, and P. L. Cornelissen (2004). Visual Word Recognition: The First Half Second // Neuroimage, 22. P. 1819–1825.
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47. H. Hesse. The Magic of the Book. D. Lindley (transl.) (1974), цит. по: Reading in Bed. S. Gilbar (ed.). Jaffrey, N.H.: Godine. P. 53.
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49. Ibid.
50. F. Dostoyevsky (1994). The Brothers Karamazov. Oxford: Oxford University Press. P. 318–319.
51. R. Mason and M. Just (2004). How the Brain Processes Causal Inferences in Text: A Theoretical Account of Generation and Integration Component Processes Utilizing Both Cerebral Hemispheres // Psychological Science, 15 (1). P. 1–7; T. Keller. P. Carpenter, and M. Just (2001). The Neural Bases of Sentence Comprehension: A fMRI Examination of Syntactic and Lexical Processes // Cerebral Cortex, 11 (3). P. 223–237.
52. D. Caplan (2004). Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Written Sentence Comprehension // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (3). P. 225–240.
53. P. Helenius, R. Salmolin, E. Service, and J. F. Connolly (1998). Distinct Time Course of Word and Sentence Comprehension in the Left Temporal Cortex // Brain 121. P. 1133–1142.
54. A. Rich (1977). Cartographies of Silence // In The Dream of a Common Language. New York: Norton. P. 20.
Часть III. Когда мозг не в состоянии научиться читать
1. Plato. Laws // The Collected Dialogues. E. Hamilton and E. Cairns (eds.) (1961). Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press. P. 810B.
7. Загадка дислексии и устройство мозга
1. J. Steinbeck (1952). East of Eden. New York: Putnam Penguin. P. 270–271.
2. M. J. Adams (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cmbridge, Mass.: MIT Press. P. 5. Цит. по: C. Juel (1988). Learning to Read and Write: a Longitudinal Study of 54 Children from First through Fourth Grade // Journal of Educational Psychology, 80. P. 437–447.
3. J. Stewart (2001). Presentation to British Dyslexia Associations. Sheffield, England.
4. British Psychological Society (1999). Dyslexia, Literacy, and Psychological Assessment. Leicester: BPS. P. 18.
5. Нет общепринятого ответа на вопрос о том, что такое дислексия и что ее вызывает. См.: R. Lyon, S. Shaywitz, and B. Shaywitz (2003). A Definition of Dyslexia // Annals of Dyslexia, 52. P. 1–14. Один из спорных моментов в определении дислексии связан с тем, соизмерим ли уровень чтения ребенка с его коэффициентом умственного развития. В некоторых более ранних дефинициях указывалось, что проблемы чтения не могут быть результатом плохих условий жизни, эмоциональных или неврологических расстройств или уровня интеллекта – все эти условия считались исключающими. В течение некоторого времени дислексия диагностировалась только в тех случаях, когда имело место четкое несоответствие между уровнем чтения и уровнем умственного развития, которое невозможно было объяснить на основании этих критериев. Использование выражения «несоответствие коэффициента умственного развития» в определении и диагностике дислексии стало предметом целого ряда возражений со стороны многих выдающихся исследователей чтения. Эти ученые задали множество вопросов, привожу некоторые из них. Насколько точно тест на умственные способности может измерить вербальные навыки детей со скудными в языковом отношении условиями жизни? Если несоответствие между чтением и показателями умственного развития является ценной информацией, должно ли оно оцениваться на основе показателей общего теста на развитие умственных способностей (который учитывает влияние дислексии) либо специальных неязыковых индивидуальных показателей умственного развития или на несовпадениях между вербальными и невербальными показателями? Если методы обучения, которые будут использоваться для детей с дислексией, будут теми же самыми, что и для детей с другими, не связанными с подобными несовпадениями, проблемами чтения, зачем тогда вообще использовать эти несовпадения? Нужна ли детям с проблемами чтения, не связанными с несовпадениями, интенсивная языковая терапия для развития их словарного запаса наряду с терапией для развития чтения? Если просто отказаться от использования «несоответствия показателей умственного развития», что произойдет со случаями «классического несоответствия»? Этим детям, которые на два года или более отстают от того, что продиктовано их потенциалом, обычно удается (с большим количеством усилий, подчас остающихся незаметными для окружающих) читать на уровне соответствующей ступени обучения, таким образом, у них нет «задокументированных» показателей для получения специальной помощи. Будет ли отказ от использования показателей несоответствия как определения ставить в невыгодное положение детей с несоответствиями «классической дислексии»? Эти вопросы привели к коллективным усилиям по поиску лучших способов определения различных типов детей с нарушениями чтения. Этот путь далек от завершения.
Еще одна проблема – реакция на специальную терапию детей с затруднениями чтения. В некоторых школах диагноз зависит от отрицательной реакции ребенка на успешную во всех других отношениях терапию. См.: See L. Fuchs and D. Fuchs (1998). Treatment Validity: A Simplifying Concept for Reconceptualizing the Identification // Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 4. P. 204–219.
Другая тема, на которой делается акцент в этой книге, касается нейробиологических причин дислексии. См.: B. McCandliss and K. Noble (2003). The Development of Reading Impairment // Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 9. P. 196–203.
6. A. Ellis (1987). On Problems in Developing Culturally Transmitted Cognitive Modules // Mind and Language, 2 (3). P. 242–251.
7. См. обзоры в следующих публикациях: M. Habib (2000). The Neurological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia: An Overview and Working Hypothesis // Brain, 123. P. 2373–2399; S. Heim and A. Keil (2004). Large-Scale Neural Correlates of Developmental Dyslexia // European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13. P. 125–140; McCandliss and Noble. The Development of Reading Impairment. Полезны также книги: V. Berninger and T. Richards (2002). Brain Literacy for Educators and Psychologists. New York: Academic Press; S. A. Shaywitz (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. New York: Knopf; M. J. Snowling (2002). Reading Development and Dyslexia // Handbook of Cognitive Development. U. C. Goswami (ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. P. 394–411.
8. A. Kussmaul (1877). Die Strungen der Sprache: Versuch einer Pathologie der Sprache. Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel.
9. J. Djerine (1892). Contribution l’tude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des diffrentes varits de ccit verbal // Mm. Soc. Biol., 4. P. 61. Эта работа рассматривалась Норманом Гешвиндом, см.: N. Geschwind. The Anatomy of Acquired Disorders of Reading // Selected Papers. Dordrecht-Holland: Reidel. P. 4–19.
10. N. Geschwind (1965). Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man // Brain, 27. P. 237–294, 585–644.
11. L. Fildes (1921). A Psychological Inquiry into the Nature of the Condition known as Congenital Word-Blindness // Brain, 44. P. 286–307.
12. P. Schilder (1944). Congenital Alexia and Its relation to Optic Perception // Journal of Genetic Psychology, 65. P. 67–88.
13. J. Kavanagh and I. Mattingly (eds.) (1972). Language by Ear and by Eye: The Relationship between Speech and Reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. См. также следующие работы: D. Shankweiler and I. Liberman. Misreading: A Search for Cause. P. 293–317; M. Posner, J. Lewis, and C. Conrad. Component Processes in Reading: A Performance Analysis. P. 159–204; P. Gough. One Second of Reading. P. 331–358.
14. V. Hanson, I. Liberman, and D. Shankweiler (1983). Linguistic Coding by Deaf Children in Relation to Beginning Reading Success // Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research 73.
15. I. Y. Liberman et al. (1977). Phonetic Segmentation and Recoding in the Beginning Reader // Toward a Theory of Reading: The Proceedings of the CUNY Conference. A. S. Reber and D. L. Scarborough (eds.). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum; K. A. Hirsh-Pasek (1981). Phonics without Sounds: Reading Acquisition in the Congenitally Deaf. Неопубликованная диссертация, Пенсильванский университет; R. B. Katz, D. Shankweiler, and I. Y. Liberman (1981). Memory for Item Order and Phonetic Recording in the Beginning Reader // Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 32. P. 474–484.
16. F. R. Vellutino (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and Research. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; F. R. Vellutino (1980). Alternative Conceptualizations of Dyslexia: Evidence in Support of a Verbal-Deficit Hypothesis // Thought and Language/Language and Reading. M. Wolf, M. K. McQuillan, and E. Radwin (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Educational Review. P. 567–587; F. Vellutino and D. Scanlon (1987). Phonological Coding, Phonological Awareness, and Reading Ability: Evidence from a Longitudinal and Experimental Study // Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33. P. 321–363.
17. Один из примеров можно найти в статье: U. Goswami et al. (2002). Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis // Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 99. P. 10911–10916.
18. Shaywitz. Overcoming Dyslexia.
19. J. K. Torgesen (1999). Phonologically Based Reading Disabilities: Toward a Coherent Theory of One Kind of Learning Disability // Perspectivs on Learning Disabilities. R. J. Sternberg and L. Spear-Swerling (eds.). New Haven, Conn.: Westview. P. 231–262; J. K. Torgesen, C. A. Rashotte, and A. Alexander (2001). Principles of Fluency Instruction in Reading: Relationships with Established Empirical Outcomes // Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain. M. Wolf (ed.). Timonium, Md.: York. P. 333–355; J. K. Torgesen et al. (1999). Preventing Reading Failure in Young Children with Phonological Disabilities: Group and Individual Responses to Instruction // Journal of Educational Psychology, 91. P. 579–593; J. K. Torgesen (2004). Lessons Learned from Research on Interventions for Students who Have Difficulty Learning to Read // The Voice of Evidence in Reading Research. P. McCardle and V. Chabra (eds.). Baltimore, Md.: Brookes. P. 355–38.
20. M. W. Lovett, L. Lacerenza, S. L. Borden, J. C. Frijters, K. A. Steinbach, and M. DePalma (2000). Components of Effective Remediation for Developmental Reading Disabilities: Combining Phonologically and Strategy-Based Instruction to Improve Outcomes // Journal of Educational Psychology, 92. P. 263–283; National Institute of Child Health and Human Developments, NICHD (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction – Reports of the Subgroups. (NIH Publication No.00–4754.) Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office; R. K. Olson, B. Wise, M. Johnson, and J. Ring (1997). The Etiology and Remediation of Phonologically Based Word Recognition and Spelling Disabilities: Are Phonological Deficits the ‘whole’ story? // Foundations of Reading Acquisition and Dyslexia: Implications for Early Intervention. B. Blachman (ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum; F. Ramus (2001). Outstanding Questions about Phonological Processing in Dyslexia // Dyslexia, 7. P. 197–216; Shaywitz. Overcoming Dyslexia; P. Simos, J. Breier, J. Fletcher, B. Foorman, A. Mouzaki, and A. Papanicolaou (2001). Age-Related Changes in Regional Brain Activation during Phonological Decoding and Printed Word Recognition // Developmental Neuropsychology, 19 (2). P. 191–210; P. G. Simos, J. Breier, J. Fletcher, B. Foorman, E. Bergman, K. Fishbeck, and A. Papanicolaou (2000). Brain Activation Profiles in Dyslexic Children during Non-Word Reading: A Magnetic Source Imagery Study // Neuroscience Letters, 290. P. 61–65; Snowling. Reading Development and Dyslexia; B. W. Wise, J. Ring, and R. K. Olson (1999). Training Phonological Awareness with and without Explicit Attention to Articulation // Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72. P. 271–304.
21. H. L. Swanson (2000). Working Memory, Short-Term Memory, Speech Rate, Word Recognition, and Reading Comprehension in Learning Disabled Readers: Does the Executive System Have a Role? // Intelligence, 28. P. 1–30; T. Gunter, S. Wagner, and A. Friederici (2003). Working Memory and Lexical Ambiguity Resolution as Revealed by ERPS: A Difficult Case for Activation Theories // Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15. P. 43–65.
22. V. Berninger and T. Richards (2002). Brain Literacy for Educators and Psychologists. New York: Academic Press; V. Berninger, R. Abbott, J. Thomason, R. Wagner, H. L. Swanson, E. Wijsman, and W. Raskind (2006). Modeling Developmental Phonological Core Deficits within a Working-Memory Architecture in Children and Adults with Developmental Dyslexia // Scientific Studies in Reading, 10. P. 165–198.
23. D. Bolger, C. Perfetti, and W. Schneider (2005). Cross-Cultural Effect on the Brain Revisited: Universal Structures Plus Writing System Variation // Human Brain Mapping, 25. P. 92–104.
24. Детальное обсуждение см. в работах: D. LaBerge and J. Samuels (1974). Toward a Theory of Automatic Information Processing in Reading // Cognitive Psychology, 6. P. 293–323; C. Perfetti (1985). Reading Ability. New York: Oxford University Press; M. Wolf and T. Katzir-Cohen (2001). Reading Fluency and Its Interventions // Scientific Studies of Reading, 5. P. 211–238. (Special Issue.)
25. B. G. Breitmeyer (1980). Unmasking Visual Masking: A Look at the ‘Why’ Behind the Veil of ‘How’ // Psychological Review, 87 (1). P. 52–69; W. J. Lovegrove and M. C. Williams (1993). Visual Processes in Reading and Reading Disabilities. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
26. P. Tallal and M. Piercy (1973). Developmental Aphasia: Impaired Rate of Nonverbal Processing as a Function of Sensory Modality // Neuropsychologia, 11. P. 389–398.
27. C. Stoodley, P. Hill, J. Stein, and D. Bishop (2006). Do Auditory Event-Related Potentials Differ in Dyslexics Even When Auditory Discrimination Is Normal? Презентация в Обществе нейронаук.
28. U. Goswami (2003). How to Beat Dyslexia // Psychologist, 16 (9). P. 462–465.
29. P. H. Wolff (2002). Timing Precision and Rhythm in Developmental Dyslexia // Humanities, Social Sciences, and Law, 15 (1–2). P. 179–206.
30. P. Wolff (1993). Impaired Temporal Resolution in Developmental Dyslexia // Temporal Information Processing in the Neurons System: Special References to Dyslexia and Dysphasia. P. Tallal, A. M. Galaburda, R. R. Llinas, and C. von Euler (eds.). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 682. P. 101.
31. Обзор практически всех многочисленных исследований Брезниц дается в книге: Z. Breznitz (2006). Fluency in Reading. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
32. M. B. Denckla and G. Rudel (1976). Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN): Dyslexia Differentiated from Other Leaning Disabilities // Neuropsychologia, 14 (4). P. 471–479; M. B. Denckla (1972). Color-Naming Defects in Dyslexic Boys // Cortex, 8. P. 164–176; M. B. Denckla and R. Rudel (1976). Naming of Object Drawings by Dyslexia and Other Learning-Disabled Children // Brain and Language, 3. P. 1–16.
33. D. Amtmann, R. D. Abbott, and V. W. Berninger (2007). Mixture Growth Models of RAN and RAS Row by Row: Insight into the Reading System at Work across Time // Reading and Writing, an Interdisciplinary Journal, 20. P. 785–813; L. Cutting and M. B. Denckla (2001). The Relationship of Rapid Serial Naming and Word Reading in Normally Developing Readers: An Exploratory Model // Reading and Writing, 14. P. 673–705; M. A. Eckert, C. M. Leonard, T. L. Richard, E. H. Aylward, J. Thomas, and V. W. Berninger (2003). Anatomical Correlates of Dyslexia: Frontal and Cerebellar Findings // Brain, 126 (2). P. 482–494; K. Hempenstall (2004). Beyond Phonemic Awareness // Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9. P. 3–12; C. Ho, D. W. Chan, S. Lee, S. Tsang, and V. Luan (2004). Cognitive Profiling and Preliminary Subtyping in Chinese Developmental Dyslexia // Cognition, 91. P. 43–75; G. W. Hynd, S. R. Hooper, and T. Takahashi (1998). Dyslexia and Language-Based Disabilities // Textbook of Pediatric Neuropsychiatrists. C. E. Coffey and R. A. Brumback (eds.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press. P. 691–718; M. Kobayashi, C. Haynes, P. Macaruso, P. Hook, and J. Kato (2005). Effects of Mora Deletion, Nonword Repetition, Rapid Naming, and Visual Search Performance on Beginning Reading in Japanese // Annals of Dyslexia, 55. P. 105–128; T. Korhonen (1995). The Persistence of Rapid Naming Problems in Children with Reading Disabilities: A Nine-Year Follow-Up // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28. P. 232–239; H. Lyytinen (2003). Presentation of Finnish Longitudinal Study Data. International Dyslexia Association. Philadelphia, Pa., October.; F. R. Manis, M. S. Seidenberg, and L. M. Doi (1999). See Dick RAN: Rapid Naming and the Longitudinal Prediction of Reading Subskills in First– and Second-Graders // Scientific Studies of Reading, 3. P. 129–157; C. McBride-Chang and F. Manis (1996). Structural Invariance in the Associations of Naming Speed, Phonological Awareness, and Verbal Reasoning in Good and Poor Readers: A Test of the Double-Deficit Hypothesis // Reading and Writing, 8. P. 323–339; R. I. Nicolson, A. J. Fawcett, and P. Dean (1995). Time Estimation Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia: Evidence of Cerebellar Involvement // Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 259 (1354). P. 43–47; R. I. Nicolson and A. J. Fawcett (1990). Automaticity: A New Framework for Dyslexia Research? // Cognition, 35 (2). P. 159–182; H. Swanson, G. Trainen, D. Necoechea, and D. Hammill (2003). Rapid Naming, Phonological Awareness, and Reading: A Meta-analysis of the Correlation Literature // Review of Educational Research, 73. P. 407–440; L-H. Tan, J. Spinks, G. Eden, C. Perfetti, and W. T. Siok (2005) Reading Depends on Writing in Chinese // PNAS, 102. P. 8781–8785; K. P. Van den Bos, B. J. H. Zijlstra, and H. C. Lutje Spelberg (2002). Life-Span Data on Continuous-Naming Speeds, of Numbers, Letters, Colors, and Pictures Objects, and Word-Reading Speed // Scientific Studies of Reading, 6. P. 25–49; P. F. De Jong and A. van der Leij (1999). Specific Contributions of Phonological Abilities to Early Reading Acquisition: Results from a Dutch Latent-Variable Longitudinal Study // Journal of Educational Psychology, 91. P. 450–476; D. Waber (2001). Aberrations in Timing in Children with Impaired Reading: Cause, Effect, or Correlate? // Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain. Extraordinary Brain Series. M. Wolf (ed.). Baltimore, Md.: York Press. P. 103; H. Wimmer and H. Mayringer (2002). Dysfluent Reading in the Absence of Spelling Difficulties: A Specific Disability in Regular Orthographies // Journal of Educational Psychology, 94. P. 272–277; M. Wolf and P. Bowers (1999). The ‘Double-Deficit Hypothesis’ for the Developmental Dyslexias // Journal of Educational Psychology, 91. P. 1–24; M. Wolf, P. G. Bowers, and K. Biddle (2000). Naming-Speed Processes, Timing, and Reading: A Conceptual Review // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 3. P. 387–407. (Special issue.)
34. Много лет назад мы с коллегой из штата Джорджия Робин Моррис и педагогом из Швейцарии Хиди Балли начали пятилетнее исследование развития скорости именования у детей с дислексией и без нее. Мы наблюдали детей до четвертого класса, а затем, когда вернулись к данным начала исследования, чтобы посмотреть, как развивались дети с дислексией, нас ожидало несколько сюрпризов. Отличия в скорости именования у детей, у которых позднее возникли нарушения чтения, бросались нам в глаза с их первых дней в детском саду. Эти дети не могли быстро называть символы – любые, но особенно буквы. Большинство детей с серьезными нарушениями чтения пошли в школу, уже имея проблемы как со скоростью поиска (обычно незаметными в устной речи), так и со скоростью обработки букв и испытывая трудности при выполнении требующих больше когнитивных усилий заданий с переключением наборов символов (RAS). Тесты RAS еще в детском саду очень хорошо предсказывали большинство случаев самых серьезных затруднений: дети не могли выполнить задания RAS с переключением наборов символов, хотя называли показанные им буквы и цифры по отдельности. Теперь, по данным многих исследователей, мы знаем, что эти различия в скорости именования или поиска обнаруживаются на всем протяжении детства и продолжаются во взрослой жизни. Нам известно также, что общая способность именования у совсем маленьких детей (до трех лет) может предсказать некоторые формы более поздних нарушений чтения и других расстройств научения, таких как синдром дефицита внимания. См., например, отличную работу Розмари Таннок об интригующих различиях в именовании цветов и объектов, которые имеются только у детей с проблемами внимания: R. Tannock, R. Martinussen, and J. Frijters (2000). Naming Speed Performance and Stimulant Effects Indicate Effortful, Semantic Processing, Deficits in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder // Journal of the American Academy of child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28. P. 237–252. См. также: M. Wolf (1986). Rapid Alternating Stimulus (R.A.S.) Naming: A Longitudinal Study in Average and Impaired Readers // Brain and Language, 27. P. 360–379; M. Wolf and M. Denckla (2005). RAN/RAS Tests (Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus Test). Austin, Tex.: Pro-Ed.
35. N. Geschwind (1965). Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man.
36. M. Misra, T. Katzir, M. Wolf, R. Poldrack and A. Poldrack (2004). Neural Systems for Rapid Automatized Naming in Skilled Readers: Unraveling the RAN-Reading Relationship // Scientific Studies in Reading, 8 (3). P. 241–256.
37. B. McCandliss, L. Cohen, and S. Dehaene (2003). Visual word form area: Expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus // Trends in Cognitive Science, 7. P. 293–299.
38. G. DiFilippo, D. Brizzolara, A. Chilosi, M. DeLuca, A. Judica, C. Pecini, D. Spinell, and P. Zoccolotti. Naming Speed and Visual Search Deficits in Disabled Readers: Evidence from an Orthographically Regular Language; V. Nrhi, T. Ahonen, M. Aro, T. Leppsaari, T. Korhonen, A. Tolvanen, and H. Lyytinen (2005). Rapid Serial Naming: Relations between Different Stimuli and Neuropsychological Factors // Brain and Language, 92. P. 45–57.
39. P. T. Ackerman, R. A. Dykman, and M. Y. Gardner (1990). Counting Rate, Naming Speed, Phonological Sensitivity, and Memory Span: Major Factors in Dyslexia // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23. P. 325–337; D. Amtmann, R. Abbott, and V. Berninger. Mixture Growth Models of RAN and RAS Row by Row: Insight into the Reading System at Work across Time // Reading and Writing; N. Badian (1995). Predicting Reading Ability over the Long Term: The Changing Roles of Letter Naming, Phonological Awareness, and Orthographic Knowledge // Annals of Dyslexia, 45. P. 79–86; D. Compton (2000). Modeling the Relationship between Growth in Rapid Naming Speed and Growth in Decoding Skill in First Grade Children // Journal of Educational Psychology, 95. P. 225–239; DiFilippo et al. Naming Speed and Visual Search Deficits in Disabled Readers; U. Goswami et al. (2002). Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis // PNAS, 99. P. 10911–10916; J. Kirby, R. Parilla, and S. Pfeiffer (2003). Naming Speed and Phonological Awareness as Predictors of Reading Development // Journal of Educational Psychology, 95 (3). P. 453–464; K. Pammer, P. Hanson, M. Kringlebach, I. Holliday, G. Barnes, A. Hillebrand, K. Singh, and P. Cornelissen (2004). Visual Word Recognition: The First Half Second // Neuroimaging, 22. P. 1819–1825; H. Swanson, G. Trainen, D. Necoechea, and D. Hammill (2003). Rapid Naming, Phonological Awareness, and Reading: A Meta-Analysis of the Correlation Literature // Review of Educational Research, 73. P. 407–440; M. Wolf, H. Bally, and R. Morris (1986). Automaticity, Retrieval Processes, and Reading: A Longitudinal Study in Average and Impaired Readers // Child Development, 57. P. 988–1000.
40. Geschwind. Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man.
41. M. Blank and W. H. Bridger (1964). Cross-Modal Transfer in Nursery School Children // Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 58. P. 277–282; H. Birch and L. Belmont (1964). Auditory-Visual Integration in Normal and Retarded Readers // American Journal of Orthopsychatry, 34. P. 852–861.
42. См., например: K. Pugh et al. (2000). The Angular Gyrus in Developmental Dyslexia: Task Specific Differences in Functional Connectivity in Posterior Cortex // Psychological Science, 11. P. 51–59.
43. E. Paulesu, U. Frith, M. Snowling, A. Gallagher, J. Morton, and R. S. J. Frackowiak (1996). Is Developmental Dyslexia a Disconnection Syndrome? Evidence from PET Scanning // Brain, 119. P. 143–157; E. Paulesu, J. Demonet, F. Fazio, E. McCrory, V. Chanoine, N. Brunswick, S. Cappa, G. Cossu, M. Habib, C. Frith, and U. Frith (2001). Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity // Science, 291. P. 2165–2167.
44. E. Paulesu et al. Is Developmental Dyslexia a Disconnection Syndrome?
45. S. Shaywitz, B. Shaywitz, W. E. Mencl, R. K. Fulbright, P. Skudlarski, R. T. Constable, K. Pugh, J. Holahan, K. Marchione, J. Fletcher, G. R. Lyone, and J. Gore (2003). Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia // Biological Psychiatry, 52. P. 101–110.
46. См. обсуждение функциональной связности в статье: R. Sandak, W. E. Mencl, S. J. Frost, and K. R. Pugh (2004). The Neurological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (3). P. 273–292.
47. B. Horwitz, J. Rumsey, and B. Donohue (1998). Functional Connectivity of the Angular Gyrus in Normal Reading and Dyslexia // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95. P. 8939–8944.
48. P. G. Simos, J. Breier, J. Fletcher, B. Foorman, E. Bergman, K. Fishbeck, and A. Papanicolaou (2000). Brain Activation Profiles in Dyslexic Children during Non-Word Reading. A Magnetic Source Imagery Study // Neuroscience Letters, 290. P. 61–65.
49. J. D. E. Gabrieli, R. A. Poldrack, and J. E. Desmond (1998). The Role of Left Prefrontal Cortex in Language and Memory // Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 95 (3). P. 906–913.
50. S. Orton (1928). Specific Reading Disability – Strephosymbolia // Journal of the American Medical Association, 90. P. 1095–1099.
51. M. P. Bryden (1970). Laterality Effects in Dichotic Listening: Relations with Handedness and Reading Ability in Children // Neuropsychologia, 8. P. 443–450.
52. E. B. Zurif and G. Carson (1970). “Dyslexia in Relation to Cerebral Dominance and Temporal Analysis // Neuropsychologia, 8. P. 351–361.
53. K. Rayner and F. Pirozzolo (1977). Hemisphere Specialization in Reading and Word Recognition // Brain and Language, 4 (2). P. 248–261; K. Rayner and F. Pirozzolo (1979). Cerebral Organization and Reading Disability // Neuropsychologia, 17 (5). P. 485–491.
54. G. Yeni-Komshian, D. Isenberg, and H. Goldberg (1975). Cerebral Dominance and Reading Disability: Lateral Visual Field Deficit in Poor Readers // Neuropsychologia, 13. P. 83–94.
55. P. Turkeltaub, L. Gareau, L. Flowers, T. Zeffiro and G. Eden (2003). Development of Neural Mechanisms for Reading // Nature Neuroscience, 6. P. 767–773.
56. S. Shaywitz, B. Shaywitz, K. Pugh, W. Mencl et al. (1998). Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 95. P. 2636–2641; S. Shaywitz (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia.
57. S. Shaywitz, B. Shaywitz, W. E. Mencl, R. K. Fulbright, P. Skudlarski, R. T. Constable, K. Pugh, J. Holahan, K. Marchione, J. Fletcher, G. R. Lyon, and J. Gore (2003). Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia // Biological Psychiatry, 52. P. 101–110.
58. J. B. Demb, R. A. Poldrack, and J. D. E. Gabrieli (1999). Functional Neuroimaging of Word Processing in Normal and Dyslexic Readers // Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia. R. M. Klein and P. A. McMullen (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; Habib. The Neurological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia; P. H. T. Leppanen and H. Lyytinen (1997). Auditory Event-Related Potentials in the Study of Developmental Language-Related Disorders // Auditory and Neuro-Otology, 2. P. 308–340; H. Lyytinen (2003). Presentation of Finnish Longitudinal Study Data, International Dyslexia Association: Philadelphia, Pa., October; Pammer et al. Visual Word Recognition: The First Half Second; J. M. Rumsey (1997). Orthographic Components of Word Recognition: A PET-rCBF Study // Brain, 120. P. 739–759; R. Salmelin and P. Helenius (2004). Functional Neuro-Anatomy of Impaired Reading in Dyslexia // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (4). P. 257–272; Sandak et al. The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions; Simos et al. Age-Related Changes in Regional Brain Activation during Phonological Decoding and Printed Word Recognition; Turkeltaub et al. Developmental of Neural Mechanisms for Reading.
59. O. Tzeng and W. S-Y. Wang (1982). Search for a Common Neurocognitive Mechanism for Language and Movements // American Journal of Physiology, 246. P. 904–911; O. Tzeng and W. S-Y. Wang (1983). The First Two R’s // American Scientist, 71. P. 238–243.
60. Pammer et al. Visual Word Recognition: The First Second Half.
61. D. Doehring, I. M. Hoshko, and M. Bryans (1979). Statistical Classification of Children with Reading Problems // Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1. P. 5–16; R. Morris (1982). The Developmental Classification of Leaning Disabled Children Using Cluster Analysis // Dissertation, University of Florida.
62. M. Wolf and P. Bowers (2000). The Question of Naming-Speed Deficits in Developmental Reading Disability: An Introduction to the Double-Deficit Hypothesis // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33. P. 322–324 (Special Issue); Wolf and Bowers. The ‘Double-Deficit Hypothesis’ for the Developmental Dyslexias; P. G. Bowers and M. Wolf (1993). Theoretical Links among Naming Speed, Precise Timing Mechanisms, and Orthographic Skill in Dyslexia // Reading and Writing, 5. P. 69–85.
63. M. W. Lovett, K. A. Steinbach, and J. C. Frijters (2000). Remediating the Core Deficits of Developmental Reading Disability: A Double-Deficit Perspective // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33 (4). P. 334–358.
64. M. Wolf and P. G. Bowers (1999). The Double-Deficit Hypothesis for the Developmental Dyslexias // Journal of Educational Psychology, 91. P. 415–438.
65. См. работы по этим языкам: H. Wimmer, H. Mayringer, and K. Landerl (2000). The Double-Deficit Hypothesis and Difficulties in Learning to Read Regular Orthography // Journal of Educational Psychology, 92. P. 668–680; C. Escribano. The Double-Deficit Hypothesis: Comparing the Subtypes of Children in a Regular Orthography.
66. Когнитивный психолог и генетик Брюс Пеннингтон из Денверского университета ближе всего подошел к описанному здесь взгляду на овладение чтением и его нарушения с точки зрения хода развития и многообразия участвующих в нем процессов. В этом подходе «множественного когнитивного дефицита» могут быть обнаружены несколько возможных источников и проявлений нарушений чтения, и, в зависимости от времени и применяемой терапии, они могут видоизменяться. См.: B. F. Pennington (2006). From Single to Multiple Deficit Models of Developmental Disorders // Cognition, 101 (2). P. 385–413.
67. R. Morris, K. Stuebing, J. Fletcher, S. Shaywitz, G. R. Lyon, D. Shankweiler et al. (1998). Subtypes of Reading Disability: Variability around a Phonological Core // Journal of Educational Psychology, 90. P. 347–373.
68. Theresa Deeney, Calvin Gidney, Maryanne Wolf, and Robin Morris (1998). Phonological Skills of African-American Reading-Disabled Children. Представлено Обществу научных исследований чтения (Society for the Scientific Studies of Reading).
69. K. Landerl, H. Wimmer, and U. Frith (1997). The Impact of Orthographic Consistency on Dyslexia: A German-English Comparison // Cognition, 63 (3). P. 315–334.
70. K. Pugh, R. Sandak, S. Frost, D. Moore, and E. Mencl (2005). Examining Reading Development and Reading Disability in English Language Learners: Potential Contributions from Functional Neuroimaging // Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20. P. 24–30; L. H. Tan, J. Spinks, G. Eden, D. Perfetti, and W. Sick (2005). Reading Depends on Writing in Chinese // Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 102. P. 8781–8785.
71. C. Ho, D. W. Ghen, S. Lee, S. Taang, and Luan (2004). Cognitive Profiling and Preliminary Subtyping in Chinese Developmental Dyslexia // Cognition, 91. P. 43–75.
72. Escribano. The Double-Deficit Hypothesis.
73. T. Katzir, S. Shaul, Z. Breznitz, and M. Wolf (2004). Universal and Unique Characteristics of Dyslexia: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison of English– and Hebrew-Speaking Children (неопубликованные результаты исследований).
74. The Double-Deficit Hypothesis; Katzir et al. Universal and Unique characteristics of Dyslexi; Landerl et al. The Impact of Orthographic Consistency on dyslexia; Paulesu et al. Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological unity.
75. Albert Kleber, OSB, STD (1940). Ferdinand, Indiana, 1840–1940: A Bit of Cultural History. Saint Meinrad, Ind. P. 67.
8. Гены, одаренность и дислексия
1. D. Whyte (1990). The Faces at Braga // Where Many Rivers Meet. Langley, Wash.: Many Rivers.
2. P. G. Aaron and R. G. Clouse (1982). Freud’s Psychohistory of Leonardo da Vinci: A Matter of Being Right or Left // Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 13 (1). P. 1–16.
3. A. Einstein (1954). Letter to Sybille Bintoff. May 21. Цит. по: A. Folsing (1997). Albert Einstein. New York: Penguin.
4. S. F. Witelson, D. L. Kigar, and T. Harvey (1999). The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein // Lancet, 353. P. 2149–2153.
5. Ibid.
6. Особое мнение можно найти в статье: A. Galaburda (1999). Albert Einstein’s Brain // Lancet, 354. P. 1821.
7. Witelson et al. The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein.
8. A. M. Galaburda (2005). November 27. Личная переписка.
9. S. Orton (1928). Specific Reading Disability – Strephosymbolia // Journal of the American Medical Association, 90. P. 1095–1099.
10. N. Geschwind (1982). Why Orton Was Right // Annals of Dyslexia, 32. P. 13–28.
11. Ibid. P. 21–22.
12. A. Galaburda (1993). Neuroanatomical Basis of Developmental Dyslexia // Neurological Clinical, 11. P. 161–173; A. Galaburda, J. Cosiglia, G. Rosen, and G. Sherman (1987). Planum Temporale Asymmetry: Reappraisal since Geschwind and Levitsky // Neuropsychologia, 25. P. 853–868.
13. Джордж Хайнд, Линн Флауэрс и их команда повторили исследование, подтвердив увеличение правополушарной PT у группы людей с дислексией, но исследователям из Стэнфорда, Джону Габриэли и его команде, это не удалось. Последние допустили, что эта правополушарная особенность может присутствовать только в какой-то подгруппе людей с дислексией и это лейтмотив большого количества исследований этого состояния. Паулин Филипек сделала обзор ряда исследований асимметрии и пришла к выводу, что подтверждающих доказательств слишком мало, отчасти из-за несоответствия отображений в разных исследованиях (то есть различий в том, где начинается одна область и кончается другая). К такому же выводу пришла и группа из Стэнфорда. См.: P. A. Filipek (1995). Neurobiologic Correlates of Developmental Dyslexia: How do Dyslexics’ Brains Differ from Those of Normal Readers? // Journal of Child Neurology, 10 (1). P. 62–69; Galaburda. Neuroanatomical Basis of Developmental Dyslexia; G. W. Hynd, M. Semrud-Clikeman, A. R. Lerys, E. S. Novey, and D. Eliopulos (1990). Brain Morphology in Developmental Dyslexia and Attention Deficit Disorder/Hyperactivity // Archives of Neurology, 47. P. 919–926.
14. A. Galaburda (2006). Dyslexia: Advances in Cross-Level Research // The Dyslexic Brain. G. Rosen (ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum; A. R. Jenner, G. D. Rosen, and A. M. Galaburda (1999). Neuronal Asymmetries in Primary Visual Cortex of Dyslexic and Nondyslexic Brains // Annals of Neurology, 46. P. 189–196.
15. Jenner et al. Neuronal Asymmetries in Primary Visual Cortex of Dyslexic and Nondyslexic Brains. См. также: J. C. Greatrex and N. Drasdo (1995). The Magnocellular Deficit Hypothesis in Dyslexia: A Review of Reported Evidence // Opthalmic and Physiological Optics, 15 (5). P. 501–506.
16. G. Rosen (ed.) (2005). The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum; G. D. Rosen et al. (2001). Animal Models of Developmental Dyslexia: Is There a Link between Neocortical Malformations and Defects in Fast Auditory Processing? // Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain. M. Wolf (ed.). Timonium, Md.: York. P. 129–157.
17. B. Chang, T. Katzir, C. Walsh et al. (2007). A Structural Basis for Reading Fluency: Cortico-Cortical Fiber Tract Disruptions Are Associated with Reading Impairment in a Neuronal Migration Disorder.
18. M. Wolf and T. Katzir-Cohen (2001). Reading Fluency and Its Intervention // Scientific Studies of Reading, 5. P. 211–238. (Special Issue.)
19. S. Petrill (2005). Introduction to This Special Issue: Genes, Environment, and the Development of Reading Skills // Scientific Studies of Reading, 9. P. 189–196.
20. E. Grigorenko (2005). A Conservative Meta-Analysis of Linkage and Linkage-Association Studies of Developmental Dyslexia // Scientific Studies of Reading, 9 (3). P. 285–316.
21. B. F. Pennington (2006). From Single to Multiple Deficit Models of Developmental Disorders // Cognition, 101 (2). P. 385–413.
22. K. Hannula-Jouppi, N. Kaminen-Ahola, M. Taipale, P. Eklund, J. Nopola-Hommi, H. Kaariainen, and J. Kere (2005). The Axon Guidance Receptor Gene ROBO1 Is a Candidate Gene for Developmental Dyslexia // PLOS Genetics, 1 (4). P. 467–474.
23. H. Meng, S. D. Smith, K. Hager, M. Held, L. Liu, R. K. Olson, B. F. Pennington, J. C. DeFries, Gelernter, T. O’Reilly-Pol, S. Semlo, Skudlarski, S. E. Shaywitz, B. A. Shaywitz, K. Marchiene, Y. Wang, M. Paramasivam, J. J. LeTuree, G. P. Page, and Gruen (2005). DCDC 2 Is Associated with Reading Disability and Modulates Neuronal Development in the Brain // Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 102 (47). P. 17053–17058.
24. K. Hannula-Jouppi, N. Kaminon-Ahola, M. Taipale, R. Eklund, J. Nopola-Hemmi, H. Kaariainen, and J. Kere (2005). The Axon Guidance Receptor Gene ROBO1 Is a Candidate Gene for Developmental Dyslexia; J. Nopola-Hemmi, B. Myllyluema, A. Voutilainen, S. Leinonen, and J. Kere (2002). Familial Dyslexia: Neurocognitive and Genetic Correlation in a Large Finnish Family // Developmental and Medical Child Neurology, 44. P. 580–586.
25. R. K. Olson (2004). SSSR, Environment, and Genes // Scientific Studies of Reading, 8 (2). P. 111–124; B. Byrne, C. Delaland, R. Fielding-Barnsley, P. Quain, S. Sumelsson, and T. Hoien (2002). Longitudinal Twin Study of Early Reading Developmental in Three Countries: Preliminary Results // Annals of Dyslexia, 52. P. 49–74.
26. Stephen Jay Gould (1980). The Panda’s Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton.
27. R. Lyon (2001). Measuring Success: Using Assessment and Accountability to Raise Student Achievement. Statement to the Subcommittee on Education Reform, U. S. House of Representatives.
28. M. Wolf, L. Miller, and K. Donnelly (2000). RAVE-O: A Comprehensive Fluency-Based Reading Intervention Program // Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33. P. 375–386 (Special Issue); R. Morris, M. Lovett, M. Wolf (2006). The Case for Multiple-Component Remediation of Reading Disabilities: A Controlled Factorial Evaluation of the Influence of IQ, Socioeconomic Status, and Race on Outcomes.
9. Выводы: от читающего мозга к тому, что «придет вслед за ним»
1. R. M. Rilke (1939). The Seventh Elegy // Duino Elegies. New York: Norton. P. 63.
